Glossary
A
- Abrasion - the breaking apart of rock caused by the blowing of sand and silt in wind (Competency 4)
- Absolute Dating - methods of dating that involve measuring the physical properties of an object itself and using these measurements to calculate its age (Competency 4)
- Absolute Magnitude - apparent magnitude of the star if it was located 10 parsecs from Earth (Competency 5)
- Acceleration - the change in an object’s velocity over time, measure in distance per unit time per unit time (Competency 2)
- Acid - a substance that reacts with bases to form a salt; a compound that releases hydrogen ions (H+) in solution (Competency 1)
- Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS) - installed on Hubble in 2002; designed primarily for wide-field imagery in visible wavelengths; has three cameras (channels) that capture different types of images (Competency 5)
- Air Mass - large body of air with generally uniform temperature and humidity (Competency 4)
- Air Resistance - the friction experienced by an object as it moves through the air (Competency 2)
- Alternating Current - an electric current in which the direction and amperage of the current changes many times in a second (60 times/second in North America) (Competency 2)
- Amplitude - the vertical distance between the crest and the trough (Competency 2)
- Angular Momentum - the rotational analog of linear momentum (Competency 2)
- Anticlines - parallel beds of the same rock type that dip away from the center of the fold; form in sections of the crust that are undergoing compression (Competency 4)
- Aphelion - farthest distance from the sun in an elliptical orbit; Earth’s occurs on about July 4th of each year and is about 152100000 km (Competency 5)
- Apparent Magnitude - a star’s brightness as observed from Earth (Competency 5)
- Aquifer - a geologic formation which transmits water from one location to another in sufficient quantity for economic development (Competency 4)
- Aquifer - a groundwater reservoir; can store and release large amounts of subsurface water (Competency 4)
- Aquifer - a subsurface package of rocks and sediment that yields water in sufficient quantities to be economically useful to society (Competency 4)
- Asteroids - sometimes called minor planets; rocky, airless remnants left over from the early formation of our solar system; most can be found in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter (Competency 5)
- Astrometry - measuring coordinates of celestial objects from images (Competency 5)
- Atmosphere - all the gases surrounding Earth (Competency 4)
- Atomic Mass - the average mass of an atom of an element, usually expressed in atomic mass units (Competency 1)
- Atomic Number - the number of protons in an atomic nucleus (Competency 1)
- Average Speed - the total distance traveled divided by the total travel time (Competency 2)
- Avogadro's Law - the relationship between a gas’s volume (V) and amount (n, moles) (Competency 1)
B
- Bank-Side Reservoirs - reservoirs made by diverting water from a river or other body of water into an existing reservoir (Competency 4)
- Base - a substance that reacts with acids to form a salt; a compound that release hydroxide ions (OH-) (Competency 1)
- Basin - a bowl like depression in the strata; similar to a syncline but with a single point at the center (Competency 4)
- Biosphere - all the living things on Earth (Competency 4)
- Blocky Structure - six sided and can have angled or rounded sides (Competency 4)
- Boyle's Law - the relationship between a gas’s volume (V) and pressure (P) (Competency 1)
C
- Capacitance - the ability of an electric conductor to store an electrical charge (Competency 3)
- Capacitor - a device used to store an electric charge (Competency 3)
- Carbonation - the dissolving of softer rocks by carbonic acid, formed when water reacts with carbon dioxide (Competency 4)
- Ceres - located in the asteroid belt; makes up almost a third of the asteroid belt’s total mass (Competency 5)
- Charles's Law - the relationship between a gas’s volume (V) and its temperature (T) (Competency 1)
- Chemical Energy - energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules (Competency 3)
- Chemical Reaction - a process in which atoms and molecules recombine by forming or breaking chemical bonds; form new products that have different chemical properties than the initial reacting material (Competency 1)
- Chemical Sedimentary Rock - form from chemical precipitation (Competency 4)
- Chemical Weathering - the wearing down or breaking of rocks caused by chemical reactions (Competency 4)
- Chromosphere - the pinkish-red layer of the sun; about 2000 km thick; temperatures range from 4400 Kelvin at the bottom to 25000 Kelvin at the top; gives off jets of burning gases (spicules) (Competency 5)
- Circuit - a closed conducting loop in which a charge can flow (Competency 3)
- Cistern - a service reservoir that is entirely underground (Competency 4)
- Clastic Sedimentary Rock - form from pieces of other rock (Competency 4)
- Climate - the slowly varying aspects of the air-water-land system; average conditions over a long period of time (Competency 4)
- Closing Fractures (pressure solution surfaces) - fractures in sedimentary rocks that are welded together by solution that occurs at the contact surfaces of grains (Competency 4)
- Coalescence - a falling water drop leaves behind a turbulent wake which allows smaller drops to fall faster and to be overtaken to join and combine with the lead drop (Competency 4)
- Coarse Soil - sand or loamy sand (Competency 4)
- Combination Reaction - a reaction in which two or more substances combine to form a single new substance; A + B → AB (Competency 1)
- Combustion Reaction - a reaction in which a substance reacts with oxygen gas, releasing energy in the form of light and heat; must involve O2 as one reactant (Competency 1)
- Comets - frozen leftovers from the formation of the solar system; composed of dust, rock, and ice; have a tail (Competency 5)
- Compound - a material formed by the chemical combination of elements in defined proportions (Competency 1)
- Compound Machine - a machine that consists of more than one simple machines (Competency 3)
- Compression - the region in a longitudinal wave where the particles are closest together (Competency 2)
- Concentrated Solution - a solution with a large amount of solute (Competency 1)
- Condensation - the process by which water vapor changes its physical state from a vapor to a liquid (most commonly) (Competency 4)
- Condensation - the transition from gas to liquid (Competency 1)
- Conduction - the movement of kinetic energy in materials from higher temperature to lower temperature through a substance (Competency 3)
- Conductor - materials that allow electrons to travel through (Competency 3)
- Conservation of Energy - energy cannot be created or destroyed (Competency 3)
- Conservation of Mass - mass cannot be created or destroyed (Competency 3)
- Constructive Interference - when two sources produce waves of the same wavelength and are in phase with one another, the crests (or troughs) of both waves will reach a point equidistant from both sources (or if the distances are unequal but differ by one or more full wavelength) at the same time and reinforce each other (Competency 2)
- Contact Force - a force between objects that can only exist if the objects are in direct contact with one another (Competency 2)
- Continent-Continent Convergent Boundaries - colliding continental material will not be subducted as it is too light; tremendous deformation of the pre-existing continental rocks and mountains are created (Competency 4)
- Contours - imaginary lines that connect locations of similar elevation (Competency 4)
- Convection - heat transfer through fluid motion (Competency 3)
- Convective Zone - part of the sun in which heat is transferred through thermal convection; begins at around 70% of the sun’s radius (Competency 5)
- Convergent Boundaries - plates that are moving together (Competency 4)
- Core - the part of the sun in which nuclear fusion reactions take place; temperatures exceed 15.7 million Kelvin; extends to about 25% of the sun’s radius (Competency 5)
- Coriolis Effect - mass moving in a rotating system experiences a force acting perpendicular to the direction of motion and to the axis of rotation (Competency 4)
- Coriolis Effect - the deflection of winds in straight line paths as they blow across the rotating Earth (Competency 4)
- Corona - wispy outermost layer of the sun; can extend millions of kilometers into space; gases burn at about 1 million Kelvin and move about 145 km per second (Competency 5)
- Cosmic Origins Spectrograph (COS) - spectrograph that measures exceedingly faint levels of ultraviolet light emanating from distant cosmic sources (such as quasars in remote galaxies) (Competency 5)
- Covalent Bond - a very strong chemical bond formed by the sharing of a pair of electrons (Competency 1)
- Crest - the highest point of a wave (Competency 2)
- Cryosphere - all the ice on Earth (Competency 4)
D
- December Solstice - when solar declination is about 23.5°S (Tropic of Capricorn); beginning of Southern Hemisphere summer and Northern Hemisphere winter (Competency 5)
- Decomposition Reaction - a reaction in which a compound breaks down into two or more simpler substances; AB → A + B (Competency 1)
- Density - a measure of the compactness of a substance given by the mass per unit volume (Competency 1)
- Deposition - the dropping of sediment by wind, water, ice, or gravity (Competency 4)
- Deposition - the laying down of sediment carried by wind, water, or ice (Competency 4)
- Deposition - the transition from gas to solid (Competency 1)
- Destructive interference - when two sources produce waves of the same wavelength and are in phase with one another, the crests (or troughs) of both waves will reach a point (P). If the distances to point P are unequal and differ by half a wavelength (or an odd multiple of half wavelengths), the waves will cancel each other completely (Competency 2)
- Diffraction - when a wave encounters a small obstacle or opening (compared with the wavelength of the wave), the wave can bend around the obstacle or pass through the opening and then spread out (Competency 2)
- Dilating Fractures (joints) - two rough surfaces that have moved away from each other in a direction perpendicular to the surfaces (mode I) (Competency 4)
- Diluted Solution - a solution with a small amount of solute (Competency 1)
- Direct Current - an electric current that is one directional, so the flow of the charge is always in the same direction (Competency 2)
- Dissolution - limestone and rocks with high salt content dissolve when exposed to water (Competency 4)
- Divergent Boundaries - plates that are moving apart; where new oceanic crust is created from magma (Competency 4)
- Dome - a bulge in strata; similar to an anticline but with a single point at the center (Competency 4)
- Doppler Effect - when the source of a wave moves relative to an observer the observer notices a change in the frequency of the wave (Competency 2)
- Double Replacement Reaction - a reaction in which the positive and negative ions of two ionic compounds exchange places to form two new compounds; AB + CD → AD + CB (Competency 1)
- Drizzle - uniform precipitation composed exclusively of fine drops very close together that fall to the ground (Competency 4)
- Dwarf Planets - a celestial body that orbits the sun, has enough mass to assume a nearly round shape, has not cleared the neighborhood around its orbit, and is not a moon (Competency 5)
- Dynamic Electricity - energy harnessed from the movement of electrons (Competency 2)
E
- Earth - our home planet; third planet from the sun; fifth largest planet; only planet with liquid water on its surface; no rings; one moon (Competency 5)
- Efficiency - a way of describing the useful output a process or machine can generate as a percentage of the input required (Competency 3)
- El Nino (ENSO) - cyclical environmental conditions that occur across the equatorial Pacific ocean; due to natural interactions between the ocean and atmosphere (Competency 4)
- Elastic Potential Energy - the energy stored in elastic materials as the result of their stretching and compressing (Competency 3)
- Electric Charge - a fundamental physical property that causes objects to feel an attractive or repulsive force toward one another (Competency 2)
- Electric Current - the amount of electric charge flowing per second through a conductor (Competency 2)
- Electric Force - exists between any two charged objects (Competency 2)
- Electrical Conductor - connects to the power source to form a closed loop (Competency 3)
- Electrical Energy - delivered by electrons, typically moving through a wire (Competency 3)
- Electricity - energy harnessed from the configuration (static) or movement (DC or AC) of electrons (Competency 2)
- Electromagnetic Force - the forces of electricity and of magnetism; second strongest fundamental force (Competency 2)
- Electromagnetic Spectrum - the range of all types of electromagnetic radiation (energy that travels and spreads out as it goes); the full range of frequencies (from radio waves to gamma rays) that characterizes light (Competency 3)
- Electromagnets - require electricity in order to behave as a magnet (Competency 2)
- Electron - a subatomic particle with a negative (-) charge (Competency 1)
- Electron Orbitals - three dimensional areas of space, defined by acceptable solutions to the Schrödinger equation, which determine the likely location of any given electron within an atom (Competency 1)
- Electron Shells - the orbitals around the nucleus of an atom where electrons reside; also called orbitals or energy levels (Competency 1)
- Element - one of fewer than 118 pure chemical substances; composed of atoms with identical atomic number (Competency 1)
- Endothermic Phase Change - changes in the state of matter involving a decrease in energy (Competency 3)
- Energy - an abstract property defined as the capacity to do work (Competency 3)
- Equinox - an event during which the solar declination is 0° (the Equator) and the Northern and Southern hemispheres receive equal sunlight (Competency 5)
- Eris - one of the largest known dwarf planets in our solar system; similar in size to Pluto; has one very small moon; located in the Kuiper belt (Competency 5)
- Erosion - the movement of rock fragments through gravity, wind, rain, rivers, oceans, and glaciers (Competency 4)
- Erosion - the wearing away of the Earth’s surface by the act of natural forces (Competency 4)
- Evaporation - occurs when the physical state of water is changed from liquid to gas (Competency 4)
- Evaporation - the transition from liquid to gas (Competency 1)
- Exfoliation - the breaking of rocks due rapidly changing temperatures (Competency 4)
- Exosphere - Fifth layer of the atmosphere; where air gradually leaks into space (Competency 4)
- Exothermic Phase Change - changes in the state of matter involving an increase in energy (Competency 3)
- Extrusive Igneous Rock - igneous rocks that are formed outside or on top of Earth’s crust (Competency 4)
F
- Field Force - a force between objects that can exist without physical contact between the objects (Competency 2)
- Fine Soil - sandy clay, silty clay, or clay (Competency 4)
- First Law of Motion - a body at rest tends to stay at rest, and a body in motion tends to stay in motion, unless acted upon by a net external force (Competency 2)
- First Law of Thermodynamics - energy cannot be created or destroyed, however it can be transformed from one type to another (Competency 3)
- First Quarter Moon - when half the moon appears illuminated; occurs when the moon is at a right angle with respect to the sun when viewed from Earth; occurs when the moon is waxing (Competency 5)
- Fission - a heavy nucleus is “split” into two or more smaller nuclei (Competency 3)
- Folds - ductile rocks behave plastically and become folded in response to stress (Competency 4)
- Foliated Metamorphic Rock - form when a rock with flat or elongated minerals is put under immense pressure, causing the minerals to line up in layers (Competency 4)
- Foliations - any sort of fabric-forming planar or curved planar geologic structure in a metamorphic rock; could also include sedimentary bedding or magmatic layering (Competency 4)
- Force - an influence (a push or pull) that changes the motion of a moving object or produces motion in a stationary object (Competency 2)
- Fossils - the preserved remains of plants and animals (Competency 4)
- Fractures - mechanical breaks in rocks involving discontinuities in displacement across surfaces or narrow zones (Competency 4)
- Freeze-thaw - the breaking down of rocks caused by water in cracks expanding during freezing (Competency 4)
- Freezing - the transition from liquid to solid (Competency 1)
- Frequency - the rate at which a vibration occurs that constitutes a wave; a measure of how often a wave cycle is completed in a given unit of time (Competency 2)
- Friction - the force resisting the movement of one surface over another in opposite directions (Competency 2)
- Fronts - the location where two air masses meet (Competency 4)
- Full Moon - occurs when the moon is on the opposite side of Earth from the sun, causing the side of the moon facing Earth to be illuminated (Competency 5)
- Fusion - when two or more lighter nuclei come together to make a heavy nucleus (Competency 3)
G
- Gas - the state of matter characterized by its non-condensed nature and ability to flow; molecules remain far apart from one another and show little interaction with other molecules; do not have a fixed volume or shape (Competency 1)
- Gas Laws - a set of observed relationships between a gas’s pressure, absolute temperature, volume, and amount (Competency 1)
- Gay-Lussac's Law - the relationship between a gas’s pressure (P) and temperature (T) (Competency 1)
- Generator - a device in which magnets are used to transform mechanical energy into electrical energy (Competency 2)
- Geographic Information System (GIS) - merges information in a computer database with spatial coordinates on a digital map (Competency 4)
- Geologic Modelling - the applied science of creating computerized representations of portions of the Earth’s crust based on geophysical and geological observations (Competency 4)
- Geologic Processes - involve interactions of the atmosphere, biosphere, cryosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere; all types of processes affecting geologic structure (Competency 4)
- Geologic Structures - usually the result of tectonic forces that occur within the Earth which fold and break rocks, form deep faults, and build mountains (Competency 4)
- Geology - the study of Earth, the materials of which it is made, the structure of those materials, and the processes acting upon them (Competency 4)
- Geosphere - all the rock on Earth (Competency 4)
- Global Positioning System (GPS) - originally developed for military precision navigation and weapon targeting purposes; provides users with positioning, navigation, and timing services (Competency 5)
- Global Winds - global air circulation patterns caused by the uneven heating of Earth (Competency 4)
- Granular Structure - loose and friable (Competency 4)
- Gravitational Potential Energy - the energy stored within an object as the result of its vertical position or height; the energy is stored as a result of the gravitational attraction of the Earth (Competency 3)
- Gravity - the force of attraction between matter (Competency 2)
- Groundwater - water held below Earth’s surface (Competency 4)
- Groundwater - water that is in the zone of saturation (Competency 4)
- Group - a column on the periodic table (1-18) (Competency 1)
H
- Hail - small balls or other pieces of ice falling separately or frozen together in irregular lumps; associated with thunderstorms; individual stones are 0.25 inches or greater in diameter (Competency 4)
- Haumea - roughly the same size as Pluto; football shaped; located in the Kuiper belt; two known moons (Competency 5)
- Heat - the transfer of thermal energy between molecules within a system; measures how energy moves or flows (Competency 3)
- Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram - a chart that reliably predicts the other qualities of stars based on their surface temperatures (X-axis: Kelvin; increases from right to left OR spectral class, which varies predictably with surface temperature) and luminosity (Y axis: ratio scale with 1 at the center; proceeds in both directions by exponents of 10; increases from bottom to top; can also be in terms of absolute magnitude) (Competency 5)
- Heterogeneous Mixture - a mixture in which different parts can be distinguished from one another (Competency 1)
- Homogeneous Mixture - also called solutions; cannot distinguish between the different parts (Competency 1)
- Hubble Space Telescope - first astronomical observatory to be placed into orbit around Earth with the ability to record images in wavelengths of light spanning from ultraviolet to near-infrared; launched on April 24th 1990 aboard space shuttle Discovery (Competency 5)
- Hydrogen Bond - a strong dipole-dipole attraction between two or more molecules, at least one of which has a hydrogen atom bonded to an electron-withdrawing atom (Competency 1)
- Hydrologic Cycle - the cycling of water on Earth which can be described with nine major physical processes which form a continuum of water movement; water cycle (Competency 4)
- Hydrolysis - minerals in rock react with water and surrounding acids (Competency 4)
- Hydrosphere - all the water on Earth (Competency 4)
I
- Ice Crystals - precipitation that generally occurs in very cold regions that consists of falling crystals of ice in the form of needles, columns, or plates (diamond dust) (Competency 4)
- Ice-Crystal Process - occurs when ice develops in cold or high altitude cloud formations; when water droplets approach the crystals, some droplets evaporate and condense on the crystals until they grow to a critical size and drop as snow or ice pellets (Competency 4)
- Ideal Gas Law - for a hypothetical ideal gas, the product of the pressure (P) and volume (V) of one gram of the gas is equal to the product of the absolute temperature (T), number of moles (n), and the gas constant (R) (Competency 1)
- Igneous Rock - forms when molten hot material cools and solidifies (Competency 4)
- Image Analysis and Enhancement - quantifying digital imagery and applying a range of techniques, primarily through the use of image operators and convolution kernels (Competency 5)
- Inclined Plane - a sloping surface (ramp); offers a mechanical advantage in that the force required to move an object up the incline is less than the weight being raised (Competency 3)
- Inductance - property of a conductor that is measured by the voltage induced in it compared with the rate of change of the electric current that produces the voltage (Competency 3)
- Infiltration - the physical process involving the movement of water through the boundary area where the atmosphere interfaces with the soil (Competency 4)
- Infrared Ear Thermometers - measure the amount of energy emitted by the eardrum in the same way that the temperature of stars and planets is measured (Competency 5)
- Inner Planets - rocky planets located between the sun and the asteroid belt (Competency 5)
- Instantaneous Speed - the speed at a given moment in time (Competency 2)
- Insulator - materials that inhibit the flow of electrons (Competency 3)
- Intensity - the power delivered per unit area; proportional to the square of the amplitude of the wave (Competency 2)
- Interception - the process of interrupting the movement of water in the chain of transportation events leading to streams (Competency 4)
- Interference - the waves from two points of disturbance may reinforce each other in some directions and cancel in others (Competency 2)
- Interferometers - help the Hubble telescope maintain a steady aim and serve as a scientific instrument; measure the relative positions and brightness of stars (Competency 5)
- Intrusive Igneous Rock - igneous rocks that are formed inside the Earth (Competency 4)
- Ionic Bond - a chemical bond characterized by electrostatic attraction between ions of opposite charge (Competency 1)
- Ionic Compound - compounds held together with ionic bonds, an electrostatic attraction between positive (cations) and negative (anions) ions (Competency 1)
- Ionosphere - regions in the mesosphere and thermosphere where high energy radiation from the sun causing particles to ionize (Competency 4)
J
- Jet Streams - relatively narrow bands of strong wind in the upper levels of the atmosphere (Competency 4)
- Joule's Law - power = current * voltage (Competency 3)
- June Solstice - when solar declination is about 23.5°N (Tropic of Cancer); beginning of Northern Hemisphere summer and Southern Hemisphere winter (Competency 5)
- Jupiter - gas giant; largest planet; fifth planet from the sun; has a faint ring system; 75 moons (Competency 5)
K
- Karst Terrain - a landscape resting on a water soluble rock layer full of caves, holes, and underground rivers (Competency 4)
- Karst Topography - a type of landscape where the dissolving of the bedrock has created sinkholes, sinking streams, caves, springs, and other characteristic features (Competency 4)
- Kinetic Energy - the energy an object possesses by virtue of its motion (Competency 3)
- Kuiper Belt - large region beyond the orbit of Neptune; astronomers think there are millions of small, icy objects in this region; location of Pluto; contain a variety of frozen compounds like ammonia and methane (Competency 5)
L
- Last Quarter Moon - when half the moon appears illuminated; occurs when the moon is at a right angle with respect to the sun when viewed from Earth; occurs when the moon is waning (Competency 5)
- Law of Superposition - within a sequence of layers of sedimentary rock, the oldest layer is at the base and that the layers are progressively younger with ascending order in the sequence (Competency 4)
- Leaching - the process of water carrying soluble substances or small particles through soil or rock (Competency 4)
- Lever - a rigid bar or board that rests on a fulcrum; a downward force exerted on one end of the lever can be transferred and increased in an upward direction at the other end, allowing a small force to lift heavy weight (Competency 3)
- Light-year - measurement of distance in space; the distance light can travel in one Earth year; equal to 6 trillion miles or 10 trillion kilometers (Competency 5)
- Linear Momentum - the product of a system’s mass multiplied by its velocity (Competency 2)
- Liquid - a state of matter characterized by its condensed nature and ability to flow; often experience some type of intermolecular interaction; have a fixed volume but not a fixed shape (Competency 1)
- Load - a device that the circuit is powering (Competency 3)
- Local Group - galaxies within roughly 5 million light-years of space around us (Competency 5)
- Longituginal wave - the motion in the material of the wave is back and forth in the same direction as the motion of the wave (Competency 2)
- Long-Period Comets - comets that take over 200 years to orbit the sun; can take as long as 30 million years to orbit the sun; are less predictable than short-period comets (Competency 5)
- Luminosity - total amount of light energy emitted from a star per second; determined by the size of the star and its surface temperature (Competency 5)
- Lunar Eclipse - occur when Earth is positioned precisely between the moon and sun and Earth’s shadow falls on the surface of the moon, causing it to dim or appear red; occur during the full moon phase; can be total, partial, or penumbral (Competency 5)
- Lunar Phases - the amount of moon we can see, caused by the moon revolving around the Earth; changes occur in a cycle that takes 29.5 days to complete (Competency 5)
M
- Machine - any device that makes work easier by changing force (Competency 3)
- Magnetic Field - the space in which a magnetic force is exerted (Competency 2)
- Magnetic Force - only attract or repel electrically charged objects that are in motion (Competency 2)
- Magnetic Lines of Force - imaginary lines in the magnetic field indicating how strong the magnetic force is (the closer together the lines, the stronger the force) (Competency 2)
- Magnetometers - used to detect submarines (Competency 4)
- Magnitude - perceived brightness of a star (Competency 5)
- Main Sequence - phase that takes place when hydrogen fusion takes place in a star’s core; a roughly diagonal, slightly S-curved line between the upper-left and lower-right corners of an H-R Diagram on which lines in this phase of life can be found; maintain a predictable relationship between luminosity and temperature: the brighter, the hotter (Competency 5)
- Makemake - located in the Kuiper belt; has one provisional moon (Competency 5)
- Mars - fourth planet from the sun; second smallest planet; the location of two rovers, one lander, and one helicopter; no rings; two moons (Competency 5)
- Mass - the amount of matter that an object contains; different from weight as it is independent of the gravitational field exerted on the object (Competency 1)
- Mechanical Advantage - a measure of the ratio of output force to input force in a system (Competency 3)
- Mechanical Energy - the energy acquired by an object upon which work is done (Competency 3)
- Medium Soil - loam, silt loam, or silt (Competency 4)
- Melting - the transition from solid to liquid (Competency 1)
- Mercury - smallest planet in the solar system and nearest to the sun; fastest planet in the solar system; no rings; no moons (Competency 5)
- Mesosphere - third layer of the atmosphere; where most meteors burn up (Competency 4)
- Metal - a material that shows a lustrous appearance when polished or fractured, and conducts electricity and heat relatively well; typically ductile and malleable as the result of metallic bonds (Competency 1)
- Metallic Bond - a bond between two metal atoms (Competency 1)
- Metalloid - a material that has properties that are in between or that are a mixture of those of metals and nonmetals (Competency 1)
- Metamorphic Rock - rocks that have been changed from their original form by immense heat or pressure (Competency 4)
- Meteor - the fireball produced when a when a meteoroid enters the atmosphere at high speed and burns up (Competency 5)
- Meteorite - when a meteoroid that enters the atmosphere survives and reaches the ground (Competency 5)
- Meteroids - objects in space that range in size from dust grains to small asteroids; space rocks (Competency 5)
- Milky Way Galaxy - the spiral galaxy that includes the Solar System; name describes the appearance from Earth (Competency 5)
- Minerals - a naturally occurring inorganic element or compound having an orderly internal structure and characteristic chemical composition, crystal form, and physical properties (Competency 4)
- Mixture - two or more pure substances combined that each retain their unique properties; are physically combined and can be physically separated (Competency 1)
- Molecular Compounds - compounds held together by covalent bonds, formed by the bonding of two or more atoms (Competency 1)
- Moons - smaller bodies orbiting a planet or dwarf planet; more than 200 are known to exist in our solar system (Competency 5)
N
- Neap Tide - moderate tides caused by the sun’s gravitational pull and moon’s gravitational pull working against each other; happen during the first and last quarter phases of the moon (Competency 5)
- Neptune - eighth planet from the sun; ice giant; not visible to the naked eye; faint rings; 14 known moons (Competency 5)
- Neutron - a subatomic particle with no charge (Competency 1)
- New Moon - occurs when the moon is between the Earth and the sun, causing the side of the moon facing Earth to be shadowed (Competency 5)
- Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rock - do not contain minerals that tend to line up under pressure; can also be formed when magma comes in contact with surrounding rock (Competency 4)
- Nonmetal - a material that generally lacks metallic properties; are usually poor conductors of heat and electricity; brittle or crumbly when solid; tend to attract electrons in chemical reactions; tend to form acidic compounds (Competency 1)
- Nonpolar Covalent Bond - a covalent bond in which electrons are equally shared between bonding atoms (Competency 1)
- Normal Force - the reaction contact force acting on a body that is placed on any surface due to the action force that is the weight of the body; will always be normal to the surface it is placed on (Competency 2)
- Nuclear Decay - the process by which an unstable isotope of a particular element spontaneously transforms into a new element by emission of ionizing radiation (Competency 3)
- Nuclear Energy - energy stored in the nucleus of an atom; can be released when the nuclei are combined or split apart (Competency 3)
- Nuclear Reaction - a change in identity or characteristics of an atomic nucleus (Competency 3)
- Nucleus - a tiny, dense positively charged mass at the center of an atom; composed of protons and neutrons and contains nearly al of the mass of the atom while occupying only a tiny fraction of the volume (Competency 1)
O
- Ocean Currents - continuous, directed movements of sea water caused by a variety of forces operating on the water (Competency 4)
- Ocean-Continent Convergent Boundaries - the oceanic plate is pushed under the continental plate; creates mountain chains with many volcanoes (Competency 4)
- Ocean-Ocean Convergent Boundaries - one of the plates is pushed (subducted) under the other; often the older and colder plate is denser and subducts under the younger, hotter plate; commonly an ocean trench along the boundary (Competency 4)
- Ohm's Law - voltage = current * resistance (Competency 3)
- Oort Cloud - believed to be a giant spherical shell surrounding the rest of the solar system (Competency 5)
- Oort Cloud - most distant region of the solar system; believed to be a giant spherical shell surrounding the rest of the solar system; may contain billions or even trillions of objects; believed to be the source of most long-period comets (Competency 5)
- Optical Telescopes - telescopes that are either refractors or reflectors that use lenses (refractors) or mirrors (reflectors) for their main light collecting elements (Competency 5)
- Organic Sedimentary Rock - form from hard biological materials that are compressed into rock (Competency 4)
- Orion-Cygnus Arm - arm of the Milky Way galaxy where our solar system is located (Competency 5)
- Outer Planets - gas and ice giants located beyond the asteroid belt (Competency 5)
- Oxidation-Reduction - water and rock particles react with oxygen; causes rust (Competency 4)
P
- Parallel Circuit - a circuit in which all components are connected across each other with exactly two electrically common nodes with the same voltage across each component (Competency 3)
- Parsec - a measurement of distance in space; equal to 3.3 light-years, 19.8 trillion miles, or 33 trillion kilometers (Competency 5)
- Percolation - the movement of water through soil and its layers by gravity and capillary forces (Competency 4)
- Perihelion - closest approach to the sun in an elliptical orbit; Earth’s occurs on about January 4th of each year and is about 147090000 km (Competency 5)
- Period - a row on the periodic table (1-7) (Competency 1)
- Permanent Magnets - emit a magnetic field without the need for any external source of magnetism or power (Competency 2)
- Permeability - refers to the movement of air and water through the soil (Competency 4)
- Photometry - determining magnitudes of variable stars and/or solar system bodies (Competency 5)
- Photosphere - the bright yellow visible “surface” of the sun; about 400 km thick; temperatures of about 6000 Kelvin; thermal columns from the convection zone are visible in this zone; where sunspots, solar flares, and solar prominences take form (Competency 5)
- Physical Weathering - the wearing down or breaking of rocks while they are in place (Competency 4)
- Planets - celestial bodies that orbit a star, are big enough to have enough gravity to force it into a spherical shape, and are big enough that its gravity has cleared away any other objects of a similar size near its orbit around its star (Competency 5)
- Plasma - ionized gas formed by superheating a gas (Competency 1)
- Platelike Structure - layered and may indicate compaction problems (Competency 4)
- Pluto - orbited by five known moons, the largest of which is Charon, which is half the size of Pluto; has a radius of 715 miles; orbit is both elliptical and tilted (248 year long orbit that can take it as far as 49.3 AU from the sun and as close as 30 AU); spins almost on its side; exhibits retrograde rotation; located in the Kuiper belt (Competency 5)
- Polar Covalent Bond - a covalent bond in which electrons are unequally shared between bonding atoms (Competency 1)
- Post Transition Metals - the metallic elements in the periodic table located between the transition metals and the chemically weak nonmetallic metalloids (Competency 1)
- Potential Energy - the energy an object possesses by virtue of its position relative to others, stresses within itself, electric charge, and other factors (Competency 3)
- Power - the rate at which work is done (Competency 3)
- Power Source - source of electrical energy (such as a battery) (Competency 3)
- Precipitation - the process that occurs when any and all forms of water particles fall from the atmosphere and reach the ground (Competency 4)
- Primary Foliations - key sources in the creation of buckle folds; form during the deposition of sediments and formation of magmatic rocks (Competency 4)
- Primary Geologic Structures - structures formed at the same time as the rocks in which they are found (Competency 4)
- Proton - a subatomic particle with a positive (+) charge (Competency 1)
- Pulley - a wheel that carries a flexible rope, cord, cable, chain, or belt on its rim; used singly or in combination to transmit energy and motion (Competency 3)
Q
R
- Radiant Energy - electromagnetic energy that travels in transverse waves (Competency 3)
- Radiation - does not necessarily require a medium to transfer it; facilitated through a type of electromagnetic radiation (Competency 3)
- Radiative Zone - part of the sun in which energy is transferred by thermal radiation; temperatures between 2 million and 7 million Kelvin; extends from 25% to 70% of the sun’s radius (Competency 5)
- Radioactive Decay - radioactive atoms trapped inside igneous rocks decay at a predictable rate; by measuring the quantity of these unstable atoms and comparing it to the quantity of stable daughter atoms in the rock, the amount of time that has passed since the rock formed can be estimated (Competency 4)
- Radiocarbon Dating - a method of dating that involves measuring the amount of carbon-14 and comparing it to the amount of stable carbon to determine when the decay process started (Competency 4)
- Rain - Widely spaced drops of liquid water (0.02 inches or larger) (Competency 4)
- Rarefaction - the region in a longitudinal wave where the particles are spread out (Competency 2)
- Reastivity - how readily a substance undergoes a chemical reaction; can involve the substance on its own or other atoms or compounds (Competency 1)
- Recharge Areas - the watersheds of groundwater reservoirs; surface waterbodies and groundwater are often interconnected in these areas (Competency 4)
- Red Giants - stars found in the upper-right corner of an H-R Diagram; both bright and cool; core is hot enough to fuse helium and even heavier elements and has pushed its shell layers so far out that they can cool into the red spectrum; their great luminosity is due to their size (Competency 5)
- Reflection - when a wave hits a boundary and is reflected, the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection (Competency 2)
- Refraction - the change in direction and usually speed of a wave as it crosses a boundary between two different media (Competency 2)
- Relative Dating - a method of determining which things are older or younger based on their relationships (Competency 4)
- Reservoirs - manmade lakes created when a dam is built on a river or over the outlet to a lake (Competency 4)
- Resistance - a force that counteracts the flow of current; how difficult it is for current to flow (Competency 3)
- Resistor - a device that limits or regulates the flow of an electric current (Competency 3)
- Revolution - Earth’s elliptical orbital motion around the sun; takes 265 days, 6 hours, and 9 minutes (Competency 5)
- Rocks - the hard, solid material that the surface of the Earth is made of; an aggregate of one or more minerals or a body of undifferentiated mineral matter (Competency 4)
- Root Expansion - the breaking apart of rock caused by root growth (Competency 4)
- Rotation - the spinning of Earth on its own axis; produces the 24-hour day-night cycle (Competency 5)
- Runoff - flow from a drainage basin or watershed that appears in surface streams; generally consists of the flow that is unaffected by artificial diversions (Competency 4)
- Runoff - water “running off” the land surface (Competency 4)
S
- Salt - any ionic compound except those that contain hydroxide or hydrogen ions; any compound other than water formed by the reaction of an acid and a base (Competency 1)
- Saturn - gas giant; second largest planet; sixth planet from the sun; large ring system; 53 known moons and 29 moons awaiting confirmation (Competency 5)
- Screw - an inclined plane wrapped around a rod or shaft; used either as a fastener or as a force and motion modifier (Competency 3)
- Seasons - caused by the tilt of Earth on its axis; Earth rotates at an inclination of 23.45 degrees from the plane of its orbit around the sun (Competency 5)
- Second Law of Motion - the net force on an object is equal to the rate of change of its linear momentum (Competency 2)
- Second Law of Thermodynamics - some forms of energy are more useful than others; using energy always makes it less useful, even though no energy is actually destroyed (Competency 3)
- Secondary Foliations - include axial plane cleavages; form in metamorphic rocks (Competency 4)
- Secondary Geologic Structures - formed long after the rocks in which they are found (Competency 4)
- Sedimentary Rock - formed from pieces of other existing rock or organic material (Competency 4)
- Seismometers - used to monitor ground shaking caused by nuclear testing (Competency 4)
- Series Circuit - a circuit where the components are connected end-to-end to form a single path for current to flow (Competency 3)
- Service Reservoirs - a reservoir that is completely man-made; can be built into the ground or above ground (Competency 4)
- Shearing fractures (faults) - shear displacement discontinuities where the fracture surfaces predominantly move parallel to each other; either perpendicular (mode II) or parallel (mode III) to the fracture front (Competency 4)
- Short-Period Comets - comets that take less than 200 years to orbit the sun; their appearance is predictable in many cases because they have passed by before (Competency 5)
- Simple Machine - a physical device that changes the magnitude or direction of a force; reduce the amount of force required to do work by increasing the distance; can use mechanical advantage to increase force (Competency 3)
- Single Replacement Reaction - a reaction in which one element replaces a similar element in a compound; A + BC → AC + B (Competency 1)
- Sinkhole - a depression or hole formed when the land surface sinks due to underground bedrock dissolution or cave collapse (Competency 4)
- Sleet - transparent or translucent round or irregularly shaped hard grains of ice consisting of frozen raindrops or melted and refrozen snowflakes (ice pellets) (Competency 4)
- Small Hail - white opaque grains of ice that are round or sometimes conical with diameters of less than 0.25 inches (snow pellets) (Competency 4)
- Snow - frozen crystalline precipitation that is mostly branched and in the form of six-pointed stars (Competency 4)
- Snow Grains - very small, white, and opaque grains of ice (frozen drizzle) (Competency 4)
- Soil Absorption - the absorption of water by the soil; greatly influenced by soil texture and structure (Competency 4)
- Soil Porosity - the space between soil particles which consist of various amounts of water and air (Competency 4)
- Soil Structure - the arrangement of soil particles into stable units (aggregates) which give soil its structure (Competency 4)
- Soil Texture - the composition of the soil in terms of the proportion of small, medium, and large particles (clay, silt, sand) in a specific soil mass (Competency 4)
- Solar Declination - the latitude of the Earth where the sun is directly overhead at noon (Competency 5)
- Solar Eclipse - occur when the moon is positioned between the Earth and the sun and the moon casts a shadow on Earth, blocking our view of the sun; can be total or partial; only visible to a small area (Competency 5)
- Solar Mass - mass of the sun; 1.99×1030 kilograms (the mass of 330000 Earths) (Competency 5)
- Solar Radius - radius of the sun; 418000 miles (696000 kilometers) (Competency 5)
- Solar System - the planetary system in which we live; located in an outer spiral arm of the Milky Way galaxy; consists of the sun and everything bound to it by its gravity (Competency 5)
- Solar System - the star system in which the planet Earth is located (Competency 5)
- Solar Winds - a continual stream of protons and electrons from the sun’s outermost atmosphere (the corona) (Competency 5)
- Solenoid - a device comprised of a coil of wire, the housing, and a moveable plunger (armature) (Competency 2)
- Solid - a collection of atoms or molecules that maintain a defined shape an size under constant conditions; can be crystalline or amorphous (Competency 1)
- Solid Cosmic Samples - samples of meteorites, rock samples returned from the moon, cometary and asteroid dust samples returned by space probes, and interplanetary dust particles collected by aircraft in the stratosphere or by spacecraft (Competency 5)
- Solstice - an event in which a planet’s poles are most extremely inclined toward or away from the star it orbits (Competency 5)
- Solubility - the extent to which a substance dissolves in a particular solvent (Competency 1)
- Solute - a compound dissolved in a solvent to create a solution (Competency 1)
- Solvent - the most abundant component in a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances; the substance in which a solute is dissolved (Competency 1)
- Sound Energy - energy moving through substances in longitudinal waves (Competency 3)
- Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) - versatile, “all purpose” spectrograph that handles bright objects well (Competency 5)
- Spectroscopy - the most common method used by astronomers to determine the composition of stars, planets, and other objects; uses instruments with grating that spreads out the light of an object by wavelength (Competency 5)
- Spectroscopy - the science of breaking light down into its component parts, similar to how a prism splits whit light into a rainbow; any object that absorbs or emits light can be studied to determine characteristics such as temperature, density, chemical composition, and velocity (Competency 5)
- Spectrum - light of various wavelengths that is emitted; color; depends on surface temperature (cooler stars tend to be redder, hotter stars are bluer) (Competency 5)
- Speed - the distance travelled in a period of time (Competency 2)
- Spring - a place where the water table reaches the ground surface (Competency 4)
- Spring Tide - exceptionally high tides where the bulges occur (and very low tides where the water has been displaced); happen when the moon is at the full or new phase (Competency 5)
- Star Mass - measured in terms of the sun’s mass (Competency 5)
- Star Movement - toward or away from Earth; rate of spin (Competency 5)
- Star Size - measured in terms of the sun’s radius; part of what determines luminosity (Competency 5)
- Star Temperature - measured in Kelvin; coolest, reddest stars are about 2500 K; hottest stars can reach 50000 K (Competency 5)
- Static Electricity - the imbalance of electric charge on a surface of a material (Competency 2)
- Stoichiometry - the proportional relationship (ratio) between reactants and products in a chemical equation (Competency 1)
- Storage - can take place in the atmosphere, on the surface of Earth, or in the ground (Competency 4)
- Stratosphere - second layer of the atmosphere; the location of the ozone layer (Competency 4)
- Strong Nuclear Force - operates inside the nuclei of atoms; Strongest fundamental force (Competency 2)
- Sublimation - the transition from solid to gas (Competency 1)
- Subsurface Geologic Processes - processes affecting geologic structure that occur below Earth’s surface (Competency 4)
- Sun - 4.5 billion-year-old yellow dwarf star at the center of our solar system; medium-sized star with a radius of about 435000 miles; about 93 million miles from Earth; made up of hydrogen and helium (hydrogen is fused to form helium in the core) (Competency 5)
- Surface Geologic Processes - processes affecting geologic structure on the surface of Earth (Competency 4)
- Switch - a device to open and close a circuit (Competency 3)
- Symbol - one or two letters representing a chemical element (Competency 1)
- Synclines - parallel beds of the same rock type that dip toward the center fold; form in sections of the crust that are undergoing compression (Competency 4)
T
- Tectonic Plate - a massive, irregularly shaped slab of solid rock, generally composed of both continental and oceanic lithosphere; also called lithospheric plates; form different types of boundaries (Competency 4)
- Tectonic Processes - subterranean movements that explain the formation of major landforms; movement of the tectonic plates (Competency 4)
- Temperature - the average kinetic energy of molecules within a system or material; measured in Celsius (℃), Fahrenheit (℉), or Kelvin (K) (Competency 3)
- Temporary Magnets - behave as magnets while attached or close to something that emits a magnetic field, but lose this characteristic when the source of the magnetic field is removed (Competency 2)
- Tension - the force acting within an object when it is pulled from both of its ends; the reaction force to the external pulling forces (Competency 2)
- Theory of Plate Tectonics - Earth’s crust is broken into roughly 20 sections (tectonic plates) on which the continents ride; built on the theory of continental drift by explaining how the continents move (Competency 4)
- Thermal Energy - the energy that comes from the movement of atoms and molecules in a substance (Competency 3)
- Thermal Radiation - photons released in the core travel a short distance, are absorbed by an ion, are released by the ion, and are absorbed by another ion; process can continue for 200000 years for one photon (Competency 5)
- Thermodynamics - the study of how energy changes from one type to another (Competency 3)
- Thermosphere - Fourth layer of the atmosphere; where x-rays and UV radiation from the sun are absorbed (Competency 4)
- Third Law of Motion - for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction (Competency 2)
- Tides - the twice daily rise and fall of sea levels; the result of both the gravity of the moon and the gravity of the sun (Competency 5)
- Topographic Map - a two-dimensional representation of natural and human made features on Earth’s surface which uses contour lines to model the shape of Earth’s surface (Competency 4)
- Topographic Models - three-dimensional models that consist of a scaled down version of an area of land and contours that show changes in elevation (Competency 4)
- Transform Boundaries - plates that are moving side by side without the production or destruction of crustal material (Competency 4)
- Transition Metal - an element whose atom has a partially filled d sub-shell or which can give rise to cations with an incomplete d sub shell (Competency 1)
- Transmutation - the non-spontaneous process where one element is transformed into another by bombarding it with high energy radiation or neutrons (Competency 3)
- Transpiration - biological process that occurs mostly during the day; water inside of plants is transferred to the atmosphere as water vapor through numerous individual openings in the leaves (Competency 4)
- Transverse wave - the motion of the material constituting the wave is up and down so that as the wave moves forward, the material moves perpendicular to the direction the wave moves (Competency 2)
- Troposphere - lowest layer of the atmosphere where nearly all weather occurs (Competency 4)
- Trough - the lowest point of a wave (Competency 2)
U
- Uranus - seventh planet from the sun; third largest planet; first planet found with a telescope; ice giant; 27 known moons; 13 known rings; retrograde rotation; rotates on its side (Competency 5)
V
- Vadose Water - water that is in the zone of aeration where air exists (Competency 4)
- Valley-Dammed Reservoir - the largest and most common type of reservoir; contained by the walls of a valley (Competency 4)
- Velocity - the speed and direction in which a given object is travelling, measured in distance per unit time (Competency 2)
- Venus - similar in size to Earth; second planet from the sun; rotates very slowly on its axis; rotates around the sun more quickly than Earth; a day on Venus is longer than its year; retrograde rotation; no moons; no rings (Competency 5)
- Visible Light - the segment of the electromagnetic spectrum that the human eye can view (Competency 3)
- Volume - the amount of space taken up by matter (Competency 1)
W
- Waning - appearing to shrink in size (Competency 5)
- Waning Crescent - occurs when about one fourth of the moon is illuminated; occurs after the last quarter moon (Competency 5)
- Waning Gibbous - occurs when about three fourths of the moon is illuminated; occurs after the full moon (Competency 5)
- Water Infiltration - the movement of water from the soil surface into the soil profile (Competency 4)
- Water-holding Capacity - the amount of water than can be held within the soil; controlled primarily by soil texture and organic matter (Competency 4)
- Watershed - the land area that drains into a body of water (Competency 4)
- Wave - the motion of rising and falling in curves; undulation; a moving disturbance or vibration of energy (Competency 2)
- Wave Particle Duality - the concept that predicts that every elementary particle will exhibit the characteristics and properties of both a wave and a particle (Competency 2)
- Wave Period - the time (in seconds) required for a given point on a wave to complete one full cycle of its motion, such as from crest to crest (Competency 2)
- Wavelength - the distance between corresponding points on two successive waves, generally measured from crest to crest or trough to trough (Competency 2)
- Waxing - appearing to grow in size (Competency 5)
- Waxing Crescent - occurs when about one fourth of the moon is illuminated; occurs after the new moon (Competency 5)
- Waxing Gibbous - occurs when about three fourths of the moon is illuminated; occurs after the first quarter moon (Competency 5)
- Weak Nuclear Force - operates inside the nuclei of atoms; second weakest fundamental force (Competency 2)
- Weather - the state of the atmosphere; made up of multiple parameters including air temperature, barometric pressure, humidity, precipitation, solar radiation, and wind; short term conditions (Competency 4)
- Weather Models - computer programs that can help predict the what the weather will be in the future by taking current weather observations from thousands of locations and use math and physics equations to predict what will happen in the future (Competency 4)
- Weathering - the breaking down of rocks and minerals on Earth’s surface (Competency 4)
- Wedge - an object that tapers to a thin edge; pushing the wedge in one direction creates a force in a sideways direction; used for splitting, lifting, or tightening (Competency 3)
- Wheel and Axle - a circular frame (wheel) that revolves on a rod or shaft (axel) (Competency 3)
- White Dwarfs - found in the lower-left corner of an H-R Diagram; both very hot and very dim; formed after a red giant of similar mass to the sun burns up all of its helium and gravity compresses its core as far as the carbon electrons within it will permit; enormous core heat as a result of its great density; all that remains of the star is the core, so core temperature is surface temperature (Competency 5)
- Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3) - installed on Hubble in 2009; provides wide-field imagery in ultraviolet, visible, and infrared light; designed to compliment ACS and expand the imaging capabilities of Hubble in general (Competency 5)
- Work - a process that occurs when a force acts over a distance in the same direction as the movement (Competency 3)